How Sociologists Define Marriage

Sociologists define marriage as a socially supported union involving two or more individuals in what is regarded as a stable, enduring arrangement typically based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind. Key Takeaways: Marriage Marriage is considered by sociologists to be a cultural universal; that is, it exists in some form in all societies.Marriage serves important social functions, and social norms often determine the role each spouse takes in a marriage.Because marriage is a social construct, cultural norms and expectations determine what a marriage is and who can marry. Overview Depending on the society, marriage may require religious and/or civil sanction, although some couples may come to be considered married simply by living together for a period of time (common law marriage). Though marriage ceremonies, rules, and roles may differ from one society to another, marriage is considered a cultural universal, which means that it is present as a social institution in all cultures. Marriage serves several functions. In most societies, it serves to socially identify children by defining kinship ties to a mother, father, and extended relatives. It also serves to regulate sexual behavior, to transfer, preserve, or consolidate property, prestige, and power, and most importantly, it is the basis for the institution of the family. Social Characteristics of Marriage In most societies, a marriage is considered a permanent social and legal contract and relationship between two people that is based on mutual rights and obligations among the spouses. A marriage is often based on a romantic relationship, though this is not always the case. But regardless, it typically signals a sexual relationship between two people. A marriage, however, does not simply exist between the married partners, but rather, is codified as a social institution in legal, economic, social, and spiritual/religious ways. Because a marriage is recognized by law and by religious institutions, and involves economic ties between the spouses,  a dissolution of marriage (annulment or divorce) must, in turn, involve a dissolution of the marriage relationship in all of these realms. Typically, the institution of marriage begins with a period of courtship that culminates in an invitation to marry. This is followed by the marriage ceremony, during which mutual rights and responsibilities may be specifically stated and agreed to. In many places, the state or a religious authority must sanction a marriage in order for it to be considered valid and legal. In many societies, including the Western world and the United States, marriage is widely considered the basis of and foundation for family. This is why a marriage is often greeted socially with immediate expectations that the couple will produce children, and why children that are born outside of marriage are sometimes branded with the stigma of illegitimacy. The Social Functions of Marriage Marriage has several social functions that are important within the societies and cultures where the marriage takes place. Most commonly, marriage dictates the roles that spouses play in each others lives, in the family, and in society at large. Typically these roles involve a division of labor between the spouses, such that each is responsible for different tasks that are necessary within the family. American sociologist Talcott Parsons wrote on this topic and outlined a theory of roles within a marriage and household, wherein wives/mothers play the expressive role of a caregiver who takes care of socialization and emotional needs of others in the family, while the husband/father is responsible for the task role of earning money to support the family. In keeping with this thinking, a marriage often serves the function of dictating the social status of the spouses and the couple, and of creating a hierarchy of power between the couple. Societies in which the husband/father holds the most power in the marriage are known as patriarchies. Conversely, matriarchal societies are those in which wives/mothers hold the most power. Marriage also serves the social function of determining family names and lines of familial descent. In the U.S. and much of the Western world, a common practice is patrilineal descent, meaning the family name follows that of the husband/father. However, many cultures, including some within Europe and many in Central and Latin America, follow matrilineal descent. Today, it is common for newly married couples to create a hyphenated family name that preserves the named lineage of both sides, and for children to bear the surnames of both parents. Different Types of Marriages In the Western world, monogamous marriage between two spouses is the most common form of marriage. Other forms of marriage that occur around the world include polygamy (a marriage of more than two spouses), polyandry (a marriage of a wife with more than one husband), and polygyny (the marriage of a husband with more than one wife). (In common usage, polygamy is often misused to refer to polygyny.) As such, the rules of marriage, the division of labor within a marriage, and what constitutes the roles of husbands, wives, and spouses generally are subject to change and are most often negotiated by the partners within the marriage, rather than firmly dictated by tradition. Expanding the Right to Marry Over time, the institution of marriage has expanded, and more individuals have won the right to marry. Same-sex marriage is increasingly common and in many places, including the United States, has been sanctioned by law and by many religious groups. In the U.S., the 2015 Supreme Court decision Obergefell v. Hodges struck down laws banning same-sex marriage. This change in practice, law, and cultural norms and expectations for what a marriage is and who can participate in it reflects the fact that marriage itself is a social construct. Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.